Jawline Contouring Costs: Total Price for a Defined Profile

Clinician tracing a patient’s jawline in a modern clinic while reviewing an itemized cost estimate for non‑surgical jawline treatments

Jawline contouring is an increasingly popular non‑surgical way to create a defined profile. This article breaks down the full costs you can expect in the USA — Botox, dermal fillers, Kybella, CoolSculpting, PDO threads and touch‑ups — explains how clinics price services, and gives strategies to compare clinics so you won’t overpay for safe, effective treatment.

Overview of jawline contouring options and expected outcomes

Before you commit to a payment plan or book an appointment, you need to understand exactly what you are buying. The term “jawline contouring” is a catch-all phrase. It covers everything from freezing fat cells to injecting bone-mimicking gels. The right choice depends entirely on your anatomy. A person with a weak bone structure needs a different tool than someone dealing with a double chin or sagging skin.

Here is a breakdown of the primary non-surgical methods used in US clinics as of late 2025.

Neuromodulators for Masseter Slimming

This approach addresses the width of the lower face rather than the definition of the bone itself. Doctors use Botox, Dysport, or Daxxify to relax the masseter muscles. These are the bulky muscles at the back of the jaw used for chewing.

Mechanism and Results
The neurotoxin reduces muscle activity. Over time the muscle atrophies and shrinks. This creates a slimmer V-shape profile. It is highly effective for patients who have a square face shape due to muscle bulk or teeth grinding.

Logistics
Longevity: Results typically last 3 to 6 months.
Recovery: There is zero downtime. You might feel temporary weakness when chewing tough foods.
Reversibility: It is not instantly reversible but wears off naturally.

Structural Dermal Fillers

Fillers are the most common method for creating a sharp angle at the mandible or projecting a weak chin.

Hyaluronic Acid (HA) Fillers
Products like Juvéderm Volux XC and Restylane Defyne are the industry standards here. Volux is specifically designed to be stiff and mimic bone.
Best for: Patients who lack bone definition or have a “weak” chin.
Safety: These are reversible. An enzyme called hyaluronidase can dissolve the filler if complications occur or you dislike the result.
Longevity: 12 to 24 months.

Calcium Hydroxylapatite (CaHA)
Radiesse is the main product in this category. It provides immediate volume and stimulates your body to produce its own collagen and elastin over time.
Best for: Patients needing significant structure who also want long-term skin quality improvement.
Safety: Radiesse is not easily reversible. You must wait for it to metabolize naturally.
Longevity: Results often last 18 to 24 months.

Jaw Contouring: Techniques, Benefits & Costs Unveiled offers further insight into how these structural techniques differ from surgical interventions.

Fat Reduction Treatments

If a layer of submental fat covers the jawbone, adding filler will only make the face look wider. You must reduce the fat first.

Kybella (Deoxycholic Acid)
This is an injectable treatment that permanently destroys fat cells.
Recovery: This has significant social downtime. You will likely experience “bullfrog” swelling for one to two weeks after each session.
Sessions: Most patients require 2 to 4 treatments spaced 6 weeks apart.
Best for: Small, stubborn pockets of fat under the chin.

CoolSculpting (CoolMini)
This device uses cryolipolysis to freeze and kill fat cells.
Recovery: There is less visible swelling compared to Kybella. The area may feel numb or tender for a few weeks.
Sessions: Typically 1 or 2 cycles are needed.
Best for: Patients with “pinchable” submental fat who want a non-invasive option.

Skin Tightening and Lifting

These treatments suit patients with mild skin laxity who are starting to see jowls.

PDO Threads
Providers insert dissolvable threads under the skin to physically lift tissues and provoke collagen production.
Results: The lift is immediate. The skin quality improves over the following months.
Longevity: 12 to 18 months.
Side Effects: Puckering, bruising, or visible threads in thin skin.

Energy Devices (Morpheus8, Ultherapy)
Morpheus8 combines microneedling with radiofrequency to tighten skin and melt small amounts of fat. Ultherapy uses ultrasound energy to heat deep tissue layers.
Best for: improving skin texture and tightness. It does not create bone structure.
Recovery: Morpheus8 requires 3 to 5 days of social downtime due to redness and swelling. Ultherapy has no downtime but can be painful during treatment.

Combination Approaches

Rarely does one single treatment solve every issue. A very common 2025 protocol involves “sandwiching” treatments. A provider might use CoolSculpting first to remove the double chin. Once healed they use Volux to define the bone. Another common combination is using Botox to slim the back of the jaw while using fillers to project the chin forward.

A Note on Surgical Options

Surgical methods like liposuction, neck lifts, or silicone implants offer permanent results. Jawline Contouring New York City – William Lao, MD notes that surgical routes have higher upfront costs and distinct recovery profiles compared to injectables. Surgery is generally reserved for patients with significant loose skin or those who want a “one and done” permanent solution rather than yearly maintenance.

Quick Comparison of Non-Surgical Options

Treatment Primary Goal Reversible? Typical Downtime
Botox/Dysport Slimming muscle width No (wears off) None
HA Fillers (Volux) Adding bone structure Yes 24-48 hours
Kybella Melting fat No (Permanent) 1-2 weeks swelling
PDO Threads Lifting sagging tissue No (dissolves) 3-7 days

Typical costs and price ranges for non surgical jawline treatments in the USA

Getting a straight answer on price without an in-person consultation is frustratingly difficult in this industry. Most clinics list prices “per unit” or “per syringe,” which tells you the cost of the materials but not the cost of the result. You aren’t paying for a syringe of gel; you are paying for a defined angle, and that often requires more product than patients expect.

As of late 2025, pricing models have shifted slightly due to inflation and the introduction of jaw-specific fillers like Juvéderm Volux. Below is the realistic breakdown of what you will pay in the US market right now.

Neuromodulators (Botox, Dysport, Xeomin)

For masseter slimming—relaxing the muscles to narrow the lower face—pricing is almost always per unit. A flat fee is rare and usually not in your favor.

  • Cost per unit: $10 to $15 is standard. High-end plastic surgeons in major metros may charge up to $20.
  • Typical dosage: The masseter is a strong, bulky muscle. You typically need 20 to 50 units per side (40 to 100 units total).
  • Total cost per session: Expect to pay between $600 and $1,500.

Men generally require higher doses due to stronger muscle mass, pushing the cost toward the higher end. Since this isn’t permanent, you need to budget for maintenance every 4 to 6 months.

Dermal Fillers (Hyaluronic Acid & Biostimulators)

This is where costs vary the most because the volume needed depends entirely on your anatomy. If you have a weak chin or undefined jawline, one syringe is rarely enough.

Pricing Model: Per syringe (usually 1 mL).

Unit Economics:
The national average for a syringe of high-quality filler (like Voluma or Volux) sits around $750 to $900. However, prices fluctuate wildly by location. For example, average filler cost in the U.S. ranges $600–$1500 depending on the specific product and city.

Realistic Scenarios:

  • Minor Definition: 2 syringes (1 per side). Cost: $1,500 – $1,800.
  • Structural Building: 3 to 4 syringes (chin + jawline). Cost: $2,200 – $3,500.
  • Total Transformation: 5+ syringes. Cost: $4,000+.

Keep in mind that “package pricing” often kicks in after the second syringe, saving you about 10-15% on the total bill.

Fat Reduction (Kybella & CoolSculpting)

If you have submental fullness (a double chin), adding volume with filler won’t help until you reduce the fat.

Kybella (Injectable Deoxycholic Acid):
Priced per vial.

  • Cost per vial: $600 – $800.
  • The catch: One vial covers a very small area. Most people need 2–3 vials per session, and 2–4 sessions total.
  • Total investment: A full course of treatment often runs $2,400 to $6,000 depending on the total number of vials required.

CoolSculpting (Cryolipolysis):
Priced per cycle (application of the applicator).

  • Cost per cycle: $700 – $1,000 using the CoolMini applicator.
  • Typical usage: You usually need 1 or 2 applicators under the chin per session.
  • Total cost: $1,400 – $2,000 for a complete treatment plan.

PDO Threads

Threads are priced either per thread or, more commonly, per area/package.

  • Per thread: $150 – $300 (barbed threads for lifting).
  • Jawline Package: A typical setup involves 4 to 8 threads for the lower face.
  • Total range: $1,500 – $2,500.

Summary of 2025 Price Ranges

Treatment Pricing Unit Low Range High Range Typical Cost Per Visit
Botox (Masseter) Per Unit $10 $18 $600 – $1,500
Jawline Filler Per Syringe $650 $1,200 $1,500 – $3,200
Kybella Per Vial $600 $800 $1,200 – $2,400
PDO Threads Per Area $1,200 $2,500 $1,500 – $2,500

Regional and Provider Variability

Geography plays a massive role in your final quote. In New York City, jawline contouring typically starts at $5,000 and can range up to $15,000 if you are seeing a top-tier board-certified plastic surgeon for a comprehensive non-surgical overhaul.

In contrast, a medical spa in the Midwest or a smaller town might charge $650 per syringe for the exact same product. However, you are paying for the hand holding the needle. A board-certified plastic surgeon or dermatologist will charge a premium (often 30-50% more than a nurse injector) for their anatomical expertise and ability to manage complications.

Hidden Fees and Maintenance

When budgeting, look beyond the procedure price.

  • Consultation Fees: $100 – $300. Usually credited toward your treatment, but lost if you decide not to book.
  • Deposits: Clinics often require a non-refundable deposit of $100 to $500 to hold your appointment slot.
  • Follow-ups: A two-week follow-up is standard. While the appointment is usually free, if you need a “touch-up” of more product, you pay for that product.

Maintenance Reality:
Non-surgical contouring is a rental, not a purchase.

  • Botox: 3 times a year ($1,800+ annually).
  • Fillers: Once every 12–18 months ($1,500+ annually).
  • Threads: Once every 12 months ($1,500+ annually).

Always ask for an itemized quote that breaks down the exact number of units or syringes estimated for your specific goals. A quote of “$2,000 for jawline” is too vague; you need to know if that covers 2 syringes or 3, as that difference dictates your results.

How clinics set prices and ways to compare offers

Understanding the final bill requires looking past the total number. Clinics in the USA calculate fees based on tangible costs and intangible value. The biggest factor is usually the provider’s expertise. A board-certified plastic surgeon or a dermatologist with specific facial anatomy training charges a premium compared to a general nurse injector at a medical spa. You pay for their ability to avoid nerves and blood vessels while achieving a symmetrical result.

The product itself drives the base price. Premium hyaluronic acid fillers like Juvéderm Volux are engineered specifically for the jawline and cost the clinic more to stock than softer fillers used for lips. Supply costs also include the consumables. This means needles, cannulas, numbing cream, and sterile drapes.

Overhead expenses vary wildly by location. A clinic in Manhattan or Los Angeles pays significantly higher rent than a practice in the Midwest. These facility costs get passed down to the patient. High-end clinics also invest heavily in liability insurance. This coverage is expensive but essential for patient safety. It ensures the clinic can handle rare complications if they arise.

Common Pricing Structures

Clinics use different models to bill for these services. Understanding them helps you spot the best value.

Per Unit or Per Syringe
This is the most transparent model. You pay exactly for what you use. Botox is billed by the unit. Fillers are billed by the syringe. This model works well for maintenance appointments where you might need smaller amounts.

Package Pricing
Many practices offer bundled treatments. They might call it a “Jawline Snatch” or “Profile Balancing” package. These usually include a set amount of filler and sometimes Botox. The total price is often 10% to 15% lower than buying each syringe individually. This is a good option if you are starting from scratch and need structural volume.

Membership Models
Some medical spas operate like a gym. You pay a monthly fee to unlock lower rates on services. This might drop the price of Botox from $15 per unit to $12 per unit. This only makes financial sense if you commit to regular maintenance every three to four months.

How to Compare Quotes Accurately

You cannot compare clinics based on the total price alone. A quote of $2,000 from one clinic might include two syringes of filler. A quote of $1,800 from another might only include one syringe and a small amount of Botox. You need to normalize the offers to see which one is actually better.

Ask for an itemized estimate during your consultation. This document should list the exact number of units or syringes included in the price. It should also specify the brand of product. Jawline filler prices vary significantly between brands like Restylane and generic alternatives.

Verify the touch-up policy. Some clinics include a follow-up visit in the initial price. Others charge a consultation fee for every visit. Ask if they offer a complimentary refinement if the results are slightly asymmetrical after the swelling goes down. Most reputable providers want you to be happy and will do minor tweaks for free within two weeks.

Vetting Low-Cost Offers

Extreme discounts are dangerous in aesthetic medicine. If a price seems too good to be true, there is usually a reason. The clinic might be using diluted products. They might be using gray market imports that are not FDA-approved.

High staff turnover is another red flag. If a clinic constantly has new injectors, it suggests they hire inexperienced staff to keep wages low. You want an injector who has been there long enough to build a consistent portfolio.

Check their specific experience with jawlines. A provider might be excellent at lips but lack the skill for heavy structural work on the jaw. Ask to see before and after photos of patients with a similar bone structure to yours. Look for consistent lighting in the photos. Shadows can easily fake a sharp jawline.

Comparison Checklist

Bring this list to your consultations. It forces the clinic to give you concrete data rather than vague estimates.

Question Why it matters
What is the exact product brand name? Ensures you get high-quality, FDA-approved filler like Volux or Radiesse.
How many syringes or units are in this quote? Allows you to calculate the price per unit for direct comparison.
Is the two-week follow-up visit included? Prevents surprise fees for checking your healing progress.
What is the policy for complications? Clarifies if they have an emergency protocol and hyaluronidase on hand.
Can I see photos of this procedure on someone my age? Verifies they can handle your specific skin elasticity and anatomy.

You should always prioritize safety over the lowest bid. Fixing a botched procedure costs much more than paying for an expert the first time. A vascular occlusion or infection requires expensive medical intervention. The goal is to find a fair price for a safe and effective treatment.

Frequently Asked Questions

You have reviewed the pricing models and understand how clinics structure their fees. You likely still have specific questions about the reality of paying for these treatments. The following section addresses the most common inquiries regarding costs, safety, and value. These answers reflect market conditions as of late 2025.

How much does jawline filler actually cost and how long does it last

The price on the menu is rarely the price you pay for the final result. Most clinics list filler prices per syringe. The average cost in the US is currently around $750 per syringe. However, a defined jawline requires significant volume. Most patients need between 2 to 4 syringes to see a visible structural change. This brings the typical initial treatment cost to a range of $1,500 to $3,200.

Longevity depends on the product used. Hyaluronic acid fillers like Juvéderm Volux or Restylane Defyne are designed for structure and typically last 12 to 18 months. Calcium hydroxylapatite fillers like Radiesse can last closer to 18 to 24 months. You should budget for a top-up treatment at the one-year mark to maintain the contour. This maintenance session usually requires less product than the initial visit.

How is Botox billed for jawline slimming

Botox for the jawline targets the masseter muscles to reduce width and grind teeth less. Clinics bill this by the “unit” rather than a flat fee for the area. The masseter is a large muscle group. It requires a higher dosage than the forehead or eyes.

You can expect to need 20 to 50 units per side depending on the strength of your muscle. With the national average price sitting between $10 and $15 per unit, a single slimming session costs between $600 and $1,500. Results appear gradually over 4 to 6 weeks and wear off after 3 to 6 months. You will need consistent treatments to keep the muscle from regaining its bulk.

Will insurance cover any jawline procedures

Health insurance providers classify jawline contouring as an elective cosmetic procedure. They do not cover costs for fillers, Kybella, or surgical implants. This applies even if you feel the procedure improves your quality of life.

There is a rare exception for masseter Botox if it is prescribed specifically for severe TMJ (temporomandibular joint dysfunction) or pain management. However, getting coverage is difficult. You must often prove you failed other therapies first. Most aesthetic clinics do not process insurance claims. You will likely pay out of pocket and seek reimbursement yourself if your plan allows it.

How many Kybella vials are typically needed

Kybella pricing often confuses patients because the cost per vial seems low compared to surgery. A single vial costs between $600 and $800. One vial is rarely enough to treat the entire submental area under the chin.

An average treatment session uses 2 to 4 vials. Furthermore, Kybella is not a “one and done” treatment. Most patients require 2 to 4 separate sessions spaced 6 weeks apart to dissolve the fat permanently. You should calculate the total cost by multiplying the vial price by at least 6 to 10 vials over the full course of treatment.

Are there hidden fees I should ask about

The quoted price often covers only the product or the surgeon’s fee. You must ask for a breakdown of additional costs to avoid surprise bills.

Common additional fees include:

  • Consultation fees: These range from $100 to $300. Ask if this fee is credited toward your treatment cost.
  • Facility fees: Surgical centers charge for the operating room time. This can add $500 to $1,500 for implants or liposuction.
  • Anesthesia fees: If you undergo sedation, you pay for the anesthesiologist separately.
  • Cannula fees: Some injectors charge extra for using a micro-cannula instead of a needle to reduce bruising.
  • Post-care supplies: Compression garments for liposuction or specialized arnica creams often cost extra.

Is it safe to choose the cheapest clinic

Low prices usually indicate a compromise elsewhere. If a clinic offers jawline filler for $400 when the local average is $750, you should be cautious. The provider might be using diluted products, gray-market imports, or unapproved brands.

The biggest risk with bargain pricing is the injector’s lack of experience. The jawline contains complex arteries. Poor technique can lead to vascular occlusion where filler blocks blood flow. Correcting this complication requires an enzyme called hyaluronidase and urgent medical care. The cost to fix a botched job often exceeds $2,000. It is safer and cheaper in the long run to pay standard market rates for a qualified provider.

How do I compare injector experience

Years in practice do not always equal skill in jawline contouring. You need to verify specific experience with the lower face. Ask the provider how many jawline procedures they perform weekly. A specialist might do ten a week while a generalist does one a month.

Check their credentials. Board-certified plastic surgeons and dermatologists generally charge higher rates but have deeper anatomical training. Nurse practitioners and physician assistants can be excellent injectors if they have specialized training. Look for providers who attend regular cadaver labs to study facial anatomy.

What financing or payment plans are common

Most reputable clinics understand that aesthetic treatments are a significant investment. They typically partner with third-party medical financing companies. CareCredit and Cherry are the most common options in the USA.

These plans often offer 0% interest for 6 to 12 months if you pay the balance in full. Be careful with longer terms as interest rates can jump to over 25% after the promotional period. Some clinics offer in-house membership plans. You pay a monthly fee to bank money toward treatments and receive discounts on products.

How often will I need maintenance

Budgeting for the initial appointment is only half the battle. You must plan for ongoing maintenance to keep your results. The following table outlines typical maintenance intervals and estimated annual costs for common jawline treatments.

Treatment Maintenance Frequency Est. Annual Upkeep
HA Fillers (Volux/Restylane) Every 12 to 18 months $1,500 to $3,200
Masseter Botox Every 3 to 6 months $1,800 to $4,500
Kybella Permanent (after full series) $0
PDO Threads Every 12 months $1,500 to $2,500

What are typical downtime and complication costs

Non-surgical treatments like fillers and Botox have minimal downtime but you might face social downtime. Swelling and bruising can last 3 to 7 days. You might need to take time off work or avoid social events. This is an indirect cost to consider.

Surgical options like liposuction or implants require 1 to 2 weeks of recovery. You will need to budget for time off work. Complications are rare but expensive. If you develop an infection or dissatisfaction with an implant, revision surgery can cost 50% more than the original procedure. Always ask if the clinic has a revision policy or if you are fully responsible for costs if complications arise.

How to read before and after photos to assess credibility

Photos are your best tool for verifying value but they can be manipulated. When comparing clinic portfolios you should look for consistency. The lighting in the “after” photo should match the “before” photo.

Watch out for chin positioning. A patient jutting their jaw forward in the “after” photo creates a false sense of definition. Check the time gap between photos. Immediate after photos show swelling which looks like volume. Healed photos taken 2 to 4 weeks later show the true result. Filler Cost in 2025: Prices by State, Brand, and Treatment Area can vary, but the quality of the result should be evident regardless of the location. Trust clear, well-lit photos from multiple angles over heavily edited Instagram posts.

Final thoughts and practical next steps

We have covered a significant amount of ground regarding the financial reality of jawline contouring. You now understand that achieving a defined profile in 2025 involves more than just a single payment. The costs vary wildly depending on whether you choose a temporary fix like Botox or a structural change with high-density fillers. You might see a starting price of $600 for a single syringe, but we know that a true jawline transformation often requires two to four syringes. That brings the realistic average closer to $1,500 or even $3,200 for a complete non-surgical session.

It is easy to get lost in the numbers. The most critical takeaway is that pricing reflects more than the product in the vial. You are paying for the expertise of the provider. A board-certified plastic surgeon or a specialized dermatologist will charge a premium compared to a general medspa. This premium covers their deep understanding of facial anatomy and safety protocols. When you see a quote that looks too good to be true, it usually is. Discounted fillers often mean the provider is inexperienced or using a product that offers less longevity.

Safety must always supersede the price tag. The jawline is a complex area filled with arteries and nerves. Poor technique can lead to vascular occlusion or asymmetry that costs thousands of dollars to fix. Prioritize a provider who can show you healed results on patients with your specific bone structure.

Your 5-Step Action Plan

You can navigate this process confidently by following a structured approach. Use these steps to move from research to booking.

  1. Research credible providers thoroughly. Start by looking for specialists who focus specifically on facial contouring. Check verified reviews on platforms like RealSelf to see patient feedback about pricing transparency and results. Look for consistency in their before and after photos. The lighting and angles should be the same in every picture.
  2. Prepare a specific questions checklist. Do not go into a consultation empty-handed. Write down questions about the specific product they plan to use. Ask how many units of Botox or syringes of filler they estimate for your goals. Ask about their policy on touch-ups if the results are uneven.
  3. Schedule two or three consultations. It is unwise to book with the first person you meet. Seeing multiple providers gives you a baseline for what is normal in your area. You will start to notice if one clinic is overcharging or if another is dangerously cheap. Pay attention to how they answer your questions.
  4. Request itemized written quotes. Verbal estimates are not enough. Ask for a printed breakdown that lists the surgeon’s fee, anesthesia costs, facility fees, and the cost per syringe or unit. This document prevents surprise charges on the day of the procedure.
  5. Compare based on transparency and experience. Review your notes and the itemized quotes side by side. The best choice is rarely the cheapest one. Select the provider who was honest about the limitations of the procedure and explained the risks clearly.

Smart Ways to Manage the Investment

You can manage these costs without compromising on quality. Negotiation in aesthetic medicine is not about haggling like you are at a car dealership. It is about finding value. Ask the clinic if they have a membership program. Many practices offer monthly tiers that bank money toward treatments while unlocking discounts on products like medical-grade skincare or Botox.

Inquire about package pricing. You might get a better rate per syringe if you buy a package of three or four upfront. This is common for jawline contouring since it requires multiple syringes. Seasonal promotions are another avenue. Clinics often run specials during slower months or around major holidays.

Financing is a standard part of the industry now. Most reputable clinics work with third-party lenders like CareCredit or Alphaeon. These services often provide interest-free payment plans for 6 to 12 months. This allows you to break a $3,000 procedure into manageable monthly payments. Just be sure to read the fine print regarding interest rates if you miss a payment.

Planning for Maintenance

The initial price is just the entry fee. You must plan for the upkeep. Hyaluronic acid fillers typically last 12 to 18 months in the jawline. Calcium hydroxylapatite fillers like Radiesse might last a bit longer. Botox for masseter reduction wears off in 3 to 6 months.

Look at your annual budget. If you spend $2,500 today, are you prepared to spend another $1,500 next year to maintain the look? If the maintenance cost stresses you out, it might be better to wait. There is nothing worse than starting a transformation you cannot afford to keep up.

Final Decision

Cosmetic procedures are 100% elective. You have the luxury of time. Do not let a clinic pressure you into booking immediately to “lock in” a price. A reputable provider will respect your need to think it over.

Take the time to review your itemized quotes. Check the credentials one last time. Ensure you feel safe and heard. When you are ready, call the clinic that offered the most transparency and the best safety record. Bring your checklist to the appointment and confirm the pricing one last time before you start. Your face deserves that level of care.

Sources

Legal Disclaimers & Brand Notices

This content is provided for informational and educational purposes only and does not constitute professional medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. Always seek the advice of a physician or other qualified health provider with any questions you may have regarding a medical condition or aesthetic procedure. Reliance on any information provided in this article is solely at your own risk.

All product names, logos, and brands are property of their respective owners. Use of these names, trademarks, and brands does not imply endorsement. The following trademark notices apply to products mentioned in this article:

  • Botox® and Juvéderm® are registered trademarks of Allergan Aesthetics (an AbbVie company).
  • Dysport® and Restylane® are registered trademarks of Galderma Laboratories, L.P.
  • Radiesse® is a registered trademark of Merz North America, Inc.
  • CoolSculpting® is a registered trademark of Zeltiq Aesthetics, Inc.
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